This paper discusses pedagogical approaches used for Cyber-Physical System (CPS) education, through the use of physical and virtual artefacts. These include testbeds, virtual twins, simulations, serious games, and both physical and digital cyber demonstrators. Virtualisation tools, such as cyber ranges and game engines will also be discussed. Cybersecurity research into CPS vulnerabilities related to the Industrial Control Systems (ICS) behind Critical National Infrastructure (CNI) is typically conducted using replica systems, rather than the actual systems, to avoid real-world risks.

In educational contexts, these surrogate systems are used at different levels. Virtual twins and testbeds are better suited for technical instruction, while serious games, demonstrators, and simulations are better suited for conceptual education. The background research identifies research gaps: while research into the use of testbeds for education exists, there is a lack of research into Game-based Learning (GBL) and Simulation-based Learning (SBL) for CPS education. To address the research gap, this paper presents studies on the application of pedagogical approaches using digital artefacts: a GBL tool to teach Industrial Control System (ICS) security concepts, aligned with the Digital Competence Framework (DCF), to support early-stage cybersecurity literacy in schools; and SBL digital demonstrators that visualise cascading effects of cyber-attacks on CNI for a wide range of stakeholders.

Findings highlight the value of interactive, scenario-driven tools in cybersecurity education, with eighty percent of participants (n=8) in one study reporting increased knowledge of cybersecurity vulnerabilities of renewable energy infrastructure. Following on from these digital artefact studies, research will be conducted into the effectiveness of applying existing pedagogical methods to CPS education using physical artefacts, specifically testbeds. The continuation of this research looks to integrate CNI concepts into mainstream education through the Creative Curriculum for Wales using physical and digital artefacts. The studies discussed in this paper provide early evidence that CPS artefacts are not only effective educational tools, but critical components in shaping a new educational framework. This research represents foundational steps toward long-term cyber resilience, as education in this area contributes to the development of more informed and responsible digital citizens.

Keywords: Cybersecurity, cyber-physical systems, industrial control systems, operational technology, critical national infrastructure, education, pedagogy, problem-based learning, game-based learning, serious games, cyber demonstrator, testbed-based learning, testbed, CPS, ICS, OT, CNI, GBL, SBL, TbBL.