Self-efficacy is defined as an individual's belief in their own ability to create and perform actions that influence events in their lives. These beliefs affect behavior, decision-making, effort, coping, and perseverance in life's various domains. COVID-19 challenged the self-efficacy of graduate students in education who also worked as teachers during an exceptional reality. With the outbreak of the pandemic, remote work and academic learning became a necessity. Students were required to learn from home while simultaneously functioning as parents and educators, often within the same physical space.

The aim of this study was to identify which personal, familial, professional, and academic variables predicted higher levels of self-efficacy among graduate students in religious teacher-training colleges in Israel. A total of 370 students, with an average of 4.61 children per household responded to a self-efficacy questionnaire and a background survey covering personal-family, occupational, and academic variables.

The sample reflects the religious diversity within Israeli Jewish society: 39% of participants identified as Ultra-Orthodox, 49% as state-religious, and 12% as non-religious (Traditional or state-secular). Stepwise linear regression revealed that 24% of the variance in self-efficacy was explained by the following predictors: satisfaction with academic studies, number of electronic devices available for teaching and learning, time invested in completing assignments, and the role held by the teacher in school.
Drawing on social-cognitive and attribution theory, the study found that self-efficacy is associated with variables perceived as within the individual's control (such as study time or access to devices), whereas variables perceived as outside of their control (e.g., number of children or housing conditions) were not predictive of self-efficacy.

A key contribution of this study lies in its cultural context. The Israeli Jewish education system is composed of three major streams: state-secular, state-religious and ultra-Orthodox. Each sector differs in its pedagogical values and approach to technology. Notably, the ultra-Orthodox community traditionally restricts the use of internet and digital devices due to ideological and religious beliefs. However, the COVID-19 crisis forced many ultra-Orthodox institutions to adapt their practices and allow the use of technology for educational purposes. This ideological shift, driven by the practical demands of remote learning, was unprecedented in many of these communities.

The uniqueness of this study stems from examining self-efficacy in a population where many individuals simultaneously functioned as graduate students, teachers, and parents especially within the religious and ultra-Orthodox communities. The findings highlight the importance of investing in personal resources (such as time and access to digital devices) and institutional support to enhance self-efficacy. Practical recommendations include promoting asynchronous learning through well-structured assignments, providing access to digital tools, and rethinking school role assignments to enhance teachers’ sense of agency and effectiveness in times of crisis.

Keywords: Self-efficacy, COVID-19, distance learning, work from home, teachers, graduate students, religious education, ultra-Orthodox, teacher-parents, digital inequality, educational technology, crisis education.