This study investigates the pedagogical potential of immersive virtual reality (iVR) in science education, specifically examining how sensory-motor affordances (i.e., locomotion, movement, gesture, and touch) contribute to learners’ perceptual states and the construction of conceptual and procedural understandings. The research is situated within the framework of embodied cognition, which posits that cognitive processes are rooted in sensory-motor experiences rather than amodal abstract symbol systems in the mind. Through a two-phase design comprising system analysis and an empirical intervention, the study explores the relationships between perceptual immersion (sense of presence, sense of embodiment and agency, and physical interaction) and educational outcomes.

A taxonomy of iVR systems was established, distinguishing platforms by degrees of freedom and input fidelity. The empirical phase utilized a convergent parallel mixed-methods design, in which participants engaged with two virtual chemistry labs—Labster (low-end iVR) and HoloLAB Champions (high-end iVR). Quantitative data from pre-, post-, and delayed tests, alongside qualitative interview data and gesture analyses, were triangulated to assess learning gains and experiential depth. Statistical analysis revealed significantly higher performance and retention in the high-end condition, with perceptual states more robustly elicited through systems offering direct gestural interaction and spatial agency.

Gesture analysis demonstrated that participants employed multimodal expression to anchor abstract concepts to observable processes or ‘physical’ representations in the virtual environment, especially under conditions allowing realistic manipulation, experimentation, and trial-and-error learning. Based on these findings, and building on existing literature, a taxonomy of embodied learning is proposed where three constructs are defined:
(1) the Sense of Presence which is reframed as a multidimensional state encompassing place illusion, plausibility illusion, and assimilation;
(2) the Sense of Embodiment which is experienced through self-location, body ownership, and the perception of agency; and Embodied Action which encompasses the degree of sensory-motor engagement, the nature of gestural interaction, and the congruency of movement.

The study’s contributions include an expanded understanding of embodiment in virtual learning environments and the role this has in shaping students’ understanding of conceptual and procedural understandings, the ground work for a taxonomy of embodied learning, and a clearer understanding of the interrelationship between sensory-motor affordances of an immersive virtual reality system and the kinds of experiences that these can enable. Practical implications are offered for educators, virtual reality developers, and researchers, emphasizing the alignment of hardware/software capabilities with pedagogical intent.

Immersive virtual environments hold considerable promise for education, particularly when designed to support active exploration, gestural fidelity, and perceptual realism. This study affirms their value not only as instructional tools but as cognitive ecologies that foster experiential and embodied learning.

Keywords: Immersive virtual reality, embodied cognition, iVR-assisted education, embodied interaction, presence, agency, body ownership.