Educators have shown increased interest in using 360° videos in educational settings because these videos can present complex environments effectively. However, navigating through these spherical videos may impose irrelevant cognitive strains on students. As a result, it remains uncertain whether such learning materials should be recommended for secondary education. One way to mitigate potential downsides is by using signaling techniques. Highlighting the correct image sections and providing specific information about animals can enhance learning, in line with the signaling principle. A two (macro-level vs. no signalling) × two (micro-level vs. no signalling) factorial between-subjects design plus control group was applied. Signals were implemented through arrows and color gradients, while less important parts were temporarily faded out or text was added to emphasize key details. A total of 203 students watched a 360° video on animals' visual and behavioral characteristics. The study assessed learning outcomes, cognitive load, disorientation, and presence. The findings showed that macro-level signaling improved learning outcomes. Descriptively, the control group performed better than most experimental groups except for those with macro-level signaling concerning retention. Signaling was effective in reducing extraneous cognitive load. However, perceived disorientation and spatial presence were unaffected by the experimental manipulation. An exploratory path model suggested that extraneous load moderated the effects of signaling on learning outcomes. The results emphasized the importance of learners selecting the correct image details, while micro-level signaling was less significant. Therefore, traditional instructional videos are as effective as 360° videos with macro-level signaling since the selection is already made by the designer. Moreover, the study indicated that the effects of signaling in 360° videos on learning outcomes are more related to cognitive processing and video design than to spatial presence. The combination of manipulations and process variables provided insights into cognitive demands and generative processing, leading to variations in transfer and retention scores. These findings support the principles of Cognitive Load Theory and highlight the importance of managing working memory and cognitive load types in new media formats like 360° videos.

Keywords: Technology enhanced learning, 360-degree video, signalling, cognitive load, disorientation.