This presentation describes a systematic review and meta-analysis of the construct social presence as applied to online learning in higher education. The objectives of the study are to assess the holistic impact that scale-based measures of social presence have on:
i) student learning outcomes and
ii) student satisfaction outcomes.

The study occurred in two phases. The first phase involved a systematic review of the literature which included: identifying relevant studies; screening and selecting studies; and undertaking the data extraction. The second phase comprised the meta-analysis which included: entering the data; conducting the meta-analysis for student learning and student satisfaction; undertaking a subgroup analysis; and determining if publication bias exists.

For the systematic review, research literature from 1995-2022, was examined with a three-stage screening process used to determine the adequacy of studies for the meta-analysis. In total 12103 records were initially screened in of which 9827 remained after deduplication. 631 records were identified as potentially relevant and were reviewed in detail. Full text read of 157 studies to assess for eligibility based on the inclusion criteria occurred, with 53 deemed appropriate for inclusion in the meta-analysis.

For the meta-analysis a random effects model was chosen for the two outcome measures with subgroup characteristics coded. Two separate meta-analysis occurred, one for student learning outcomes and the other for student satisfaction outcomes. If a study reported both they were treated as independent and entered separately for each outcome. A test of power was conducted, and it was determined to be .99 for the learning meta-analysis and .95 for satisfaction meta-analysis, with the number of studies included in both meta-analysis sufficient for statistical testing of the heterogeneity of effect sizes and average effect sizes. To evaluate potential publication bias funnel plots, trim and fill procedures, and fail-safe N were utilized in both the learning and satisfaction meta-analysis. The results reveal that social presence exerts a moderate effect on both student learning and satisfaction outcomes with no substantive evidence of publication bias detected in either the learning or satisfaction meta-analysis. Subgroup analysis did not yield significant findings across the subgroups that included student type, subject area, course length, location, and mode of delivery.

An important observation is the inconsistency in reporting reliability coefficients for the scale-based measures used in studies, limiting the inclusion of certain research in the analysis. Additionally, the operationalization and measurement of the social presence construct lacks uniformity across studies, potentially contributing to the observed heterogeneity in the meta-analysis results.

The paper concludes by advocating for enhanced research design rigour to support empirically validated investigations into improving social presence in online learning, stressing the importance of methodological precision for future studies in this area. As well, greater attention to the reporting of moderator variables, such as course design and instructor behaviours, is recommended to provide a more nuanced understanding of the effects of social presence on student outcomes. This approach will enhance the effectiveness of online education and better inform instructional practices in higher education settings.

Keywords: Evidence synthesis, higher education, online learning, systematic review, meta-analysis, social presence.